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grocery

Carrot & casava

sweet potato , potato & onion

Grrlic

turnip & Beet

muskmelon &  watermelon

Pumpkin

Cabbage

Broccoli

cauliflower

Banana

Mango

Pineapple

Papaya

Tomato

Pepper

Eggplant

okra

Beans

barley

Plum

strawberry

Peach

Apricot

pear

Apple

pepper

eggplant

lemons

orange

hesperidium

cow peas

peas

chick peas

jirjir

bottle guard

Plant Cell

Cellular basis of growth
Plant growth results from a combination of three processes at the cellular level


Cell division
Cell expansion

Cell differentiation

Each of these processes is necessary for sustained and organized growth. Cell division or mitosis involves the duplication and orderly separation of complete sets of genetic material. As cells expand this genetic material is selectively transcribed and translated to determine the final shape of each cell. So cells end up different shapes according to their position and function in the plant. In other words they undergo differentiation.

The Plant Cell

Text books tend to start with a picture of "a typical plant cell", although there is really no such thing. However, we can make some general statements about plant cells as distinct from those of other organisms. Since plants are eukaryotes their cells are divided into compartments each of which is enclosed by at least one lipid bilayer membrane. Three distinctive features of plant cells are the presence of

a cell wall composed of cellulose and other polysaccharides.

plastids

vacuoles
The composition and structure of the cell wall are important aspects of differentiation.


Within the wall, and usually pressed up against it is the plasma membrane (PM). This membrane regulates the uptake and exit of molecules and ions; it is involved in sensing signals from the environment and other cells in the plant and in cellulose synthesis.


In addition to this external boundary, plant cells have an internal boundary, the tonoplast (TP) which encloses the vacuole.




Expansion of plant cells occurs mainly in the vacuole so that this is the largest compartment of most mature cells.


Most of the soluble reserves of organic molecules, sugars, organic acids and amino compounds are held in the vacuole
Plants have no way of eliminating wastes from their tissues and the vacuole provides a location for metabolic end products
The vacuole contains hydrolytic enzymes so that some of the wastes can be digested and recycled
Because of its dissolved solutes the vacuole regulates the osmotic properties of plant cells
The organelles and most of the metabolic apparatus of the plant cell exist in the cytoplasm, between the plasma membrane and tonoplast

Chloroplasts with their role in photosynthesis are just one member of a family of organelles that are all enclosed by double lipid membranes. Other members of this family of plastids have other functions and include

amyloplasts which are filled with starch granules and occur in storage tissues in seeds, roots and stems

chromoplasts which contain yellow or orange carotenoid pigments in solution in lipid droplets and occur in many flowers and fruits

eoplasts which are a juvenile form of plastid that occurs in embryos and apical meristems

etioplasts which develop in tissues in the dark and lack pigments

Plastids contain DNA that encodes some of their proteins (others are encoded by the nucleus) and they reproduce by division. Eoplasts develop into the other forms of plastid, depending on the kind of tissue where they occur. All of the forms of plastid are interconvertible. Much of fall color is the result of the transition from chloroplast to chromoplast in the leaves of deciduous trees.

This plastid from a young strawberry fruit is intermediate between a chloroplast (presence of thylakoid) and an amyloplast (large starch grains)




Other membrane -bound organelles in the plant cell are typical of all eukaryotes:

The nucleus is the site of most of the genetic information in the cell. It is bounded by a double membrane which is perforated all over with pores. Proteins and other molecules from the outside world can enter these pores and affect nuclear function. RNA (mRNA, tRNA and rRNA) that is transcribed from DNA in the nucleus passes out through the pores to the cytoplasm where it is involved in protein synthesis. Ribosomal RNA synthesis is concentrated in the nucleolus (1) which is the usually the most obvious structure visible in the nucleus.

The mitochondrion is another double membrane bounded organelle with some of its own DNA and protein synthesis apparatus. As with the chloroplast, the synthesis of mitochondrial proteins is shared between the mitochodrion itself and the nucleus. Like the plastid and nucleus it reproduces by division. The role of mitochondria in respiration is described elsewhere

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) occurs as sheets of membrane throughout the cytoplasm; it is often associated with ribosomes (rough ER) but may also be smooth. The ER is involved in processing proteins and movement of molecules around the cell.

The Golgi apparatus or dictyosome is a stack of saucer like membranes which generate little vesicles at the edges. It is involved in secretion of material, particularly cell wall components through the plasma membrane.







The cytoskeleton is made up of actin filaments which are responsible for cytoplasmic movement and microtubules that organize cell wall assembly and chromosome movement in mitosis. Although plants themselves do not move there is plenty of movement inside their cells.

In addition to the actin and tubulin systems, membranes provide a pathway of movement. New lipid produced in the ER, moves to the Golgi apparatus where it picks up material for secretion. Vesicles from the Golgi pass out of the cell, delivering packages of cell wall material as they fuse with the plasma membrane.
An interesting view of the plant cell is given at a Web site maintained by the University of Illinois. Their Virtual Cell is a clickable map of structures in the plant cell as seen with the electron microscope and in diagrammatic form.

woody plant

     A woody plant is defined as a plant that retains some living woody material at or above ground level through the non-growing season (several species of small cacti fit this definition, but are not recognized trees or shrubs). Categorizing a woody plant as "tree", "shrub", or "vine" is often difficult and can appear arbitrary. Distinguishing between a tree and a shrub can be particularly difficult. That is why it is not unusual to see descriptions such as "small tree or large shrub." In this treatment we have adopted the following definitions: a tree is a woody plant that is at least 10 cm (4 in ) in diameter at 1.4 m (4.5 ft) above ground level; a shrub is less than 10 cm in diameter at 1.4 m above the ground and usually has multiple stems or is clonal; a woody vine does not stand upright without support but climbs on other vegetation or sprawls on the ground.

We hope that the format we have adopted will both aid in identification and enrich general knowledge of woody plant species. Each entry starts with the species' Latin binomial or scientific name, followed by the family name and a short list of synonyms (e.g., older scientific names that are no longer in use) . This information was acquired from a variety of sources, but the Natural Resources Conservation Service list was used extensively. Also included is the common name, or names, for each species. The most prevalent common name heads the list. Some common names are quite descriptive and can actually aid in plant identification (i.e., moonseed vine, rough leaved-dogwood, skunkbush). Others give clues to medicinal and other uses (i.e., toothache tree, whorehouse tea, soapweed). Others seem whimsical and rather entertaining (supple-jack, sow-teat blackberry, ladies' eardrops).

Following the species name is a set of descriptions of the physical characters of the plant. This is the primary vehicle for plant identification. To facilitate identification, photographs (all of which are taken by the authors unless noted otherwise) are inserted throughout the description section. Unfortunately, photographs are not available for all woody plant species at this time. The description of each species includes information regarding bark (color, pattern, etc.), twigs (size, leaf scars, bud morphology), leaves (size, shape, placement), flowers (size, color, number of petals, etc.) and fruit (size, shape, color). Currently, there are no dichotomous keys available for the woody flora on this website. We hope to redress this matter in the near future.

Knowledge of the habitat preferences and distribution of a species is another important identification aid. Therefore, we have provided a succinct description of each species' associated habitat. Information regarding a species' geographic distribution is provided in a written synopsis listing state and regional distribution. A county dot map accompanies each entry to illustrate the distribution within the state. The dot maps were derived from herbarium specimens housed at the Bebb Herbarium, at the University of Oklahoma, the Oklahoma State University herbarium, the University of Science and Arts of Oklahoma, and the University of Tulsa. Label data, including county of collection, directions to collection site, collector, and year of collection, were recorded into an electronic database. We are continuing to database specimens from other regional schools (i.e., University of Tulsa, Southeastern Oklahoma State University, Cameron University, Northwestern Oklahoma State University and Northeastern State University) and institutions beyond our borders (i.e., the Botanical Research Institute of Texas, the University of Kansas).

Distribution maps are not only an effective tool for the study of species ranges, but also focus floristic survey and inventory activities. For example, as a result of this mapping exercise, we have identified several Oklahoma counties with inadequate representation in herbarium collections. These gaps in our knowledge can affect how we interpret distribution maps. Therefore, we have engaged in an systematic collection program in those "under represented" counties. As a result of these activities, the distribution maps for some species will be updated annually.

 

Finally, we included some general comments, notes regarding the etymology of scientific names, tips for field identification and distinguishing species with similar appearance, medicinal uses, horticultural uses, wildlife uses, and Regional Wetland Indicator (RWI) status. (RWI information will be of most interest to specialists in wetland issues. The indicator status species changes from time-to-time, so we encourage interested individuals to visit the USDA plants database for the most current designation.)

The perfect Glossary

plant Glossary

A


Action or damage threshold – The level of a pest population at which control is initiated.


Acidity – pH below 7.


Acute toxicity – Injury that occurs soon after exposure to a pesticide.


Aerated – Contains plenty of air.


Alkalinity – pH above 7.


Ammonium – A form of nitrogen that is commonly found in the soil.


Aneorbic – Without oxygen.


Annuals – Plants that reproduce by seed and live for a single year.


Antagonists – Organisms that release toxins or otherwise change conditions so that activity or growth of the pest organism is reduced.


Aphids – Small soft-bodied insects with long, slender mouth parts with which they pierce stems and leaves to suck out plant fluids.


Azotobacter – A type of bacteria found in compost piles that can fix atmospheric nitrogen into a form plants can use.


B


Bacteria – Single celled organisms that require a host plant or some other organic material as a food source.


Bed planting – Growing vegetables in closely spaced rows that grow together at crop maturity.


Beneficial insects – Insects that are beneficial for crop production because they pollinate plants, attack insect pests or serve other useful purposes.


Biennial – A plant that lives for two years. It produces leaves in the first and flowers in the second.


Biodegradable plastic mulch – Plastic mulch that degrades in the environment.


Biological control – Any activity of one species that reduces the adverse effects of another.


Black plastic mulch – A plastic mulch that is black in color.


Blossom-end rot – A calcium deficiency in tomato and pepper fruit that causes the tip of the fruit to blacken and rot.


Bolting – The formation of a seed stalk instead of an edible portion of the plant.


Bone meal – Ground up animal bones that are an excellent source of phosphate, calcium and trace elements.


Broadleaves – Dicot weeds that have meristems at the terminal end of their branches.


Burpless cucumber – Mild-flavored and the skin is free of bitterness.


Butter and sugar corn – White and yellow colored kernels are mixed on the ear.


C


Cabbageworms – Caterpillars that attack cole crops.


Cantaloupe – A muskmelon of the round-to-oval, firm fleshed, no sutured, heavy-netted type.


Carbon to nitrogen ratio – The ratio of the amount of carbon in organic matter to the amount of nitrogen that it contains.


Casaba – A somewhat rounded melon with a smooth rind and white flesh.


Cation exchange – The ability of clay and humus to attract and exchange positive ions.


Chronic toxicity – Injury that occurs after long-term exposure to a pesticide.


Clay – A constituent of soils that consists of particles less than 0.002 mm in size.


Clear plastic mulches – Plastic mulch that is clear and allows light to penetrate.


Cold frame – An unheated structure used to start transplants.


Companion planting – Plants that protect neighbors by repelling pests.


Compost – Decayed organic matter that contains nutrients and organisms, which enrich the soil.


Cool season vegetables – Plants that grow best when temperatures are cool.


Cover crop – A vigorous fast-growing plant that covers the soil surface and improves the soil.


Crookneck squash – Fruit are elongated with slim, long, slightly to very curved neck.


Crop rotation – Planting different crops in the same place two years in the row.


Cultivars – Plants within varieties that breeders have developed and are distinct from each other.


Cultural weed control – Cropping practices that optimize vegetable growth.


D


Damping-off – A disease that attacks seedlings, causing rotting near the soil line.


Denitrification – The conversion of nitrates into atmospheric nitrogen by soil microbes in water logged soils.


Dermal exposure – Pesticide is absorbed through the skin.


Dolomitic limestone – Lime that supplies both calcium and magnesium.


Double digging – A process whereby the gardener works the topsoil and also loosens the subsoil.


Drainage – Movement of water away from the surface of a garden either down into the soil or by flow across the surface.


Dried blood – Blood of animals that is collected from slaughterhouses. It contains high levels of nitrogen.


E


Ear – The female flower of corn that produces seed after pollination.


E. coli – A bacteria associated with animal wastes that can cause serious health problems.


Embryo – The structure within a seed that develops into a plant.


Exposure – On hillsides, it is the direction your garden faces.


F


F1 Hybrids –Cultivars resulting from a cross between two different true breeding (referred to as inbred) parents.


Field capacity – The maximum amount of water your particular soil will hold.


Fish meal – Ground up fish. Contains nitrogen and phosphorus.


Friable – An easily worked soil.


Frost-free date – The average last day of frost for a specific area.


Frost pocket – A low-lying area where frost occurs late in the season.


Fungi – Multi-celled organisms that reproduce by spores and rely on living or dead organic matter for food.


G


Gourd – A fruit with a hard outer rind that is used for decoration.


Grasses – A category of weed that are monocots, have narrow leaves and a growing point at our just below the soil surface.


Green manure – A cover crop used to add nutrients to the soil and choke out undesirable plants.


Greensand – A ground rock material that contains potassium and trace elements.


Gynoecious cucumbers – Hybrids whose plants have all female flowers.


H


Hardening-off – The process whereby transplants top growth and develop greater tolerance to stress.


Hazard – The combination of a pesticide’s toxicity and your exposure to the pesticide


Heavy soil – A soil that contains a high proportion of clay and is poorly drained.


Heirloom cultivars – Cultivars that are more than 100 years old and whose seeds are passed down from generation to generation.


Hill plantings – Planting multiple seeds together in clumps.


Honeydew – A round melon with smooth rind and green flesh.


Hotbed – A heated cold frame.


Hot caps – Individual structures placed over a vegetable plant that warm the temperature and protect the plant against frost.


Humus – A substance that results from the decay of organic matter by living organisms.


Hyphae – A fine threadlike structure of cell formed by fungi affecting a plant.


I


Incidental organisms – Organisms that have little or no impact on crop production.


Inhalation exposure – Pesticide is absorbed by breathing-in through the lungs.


Integrated Pest Management – An approach to pest management that uses a variety of techniques to identify and if necessary manage a pest.


Intercropping – Planting more than one crop in an area at the same time.


Interplanting (companion planting) – Growing two or more plants together in a close association.


IR mulches – Mulches that allow infrared radiation to penetrate through the mulch but reflects photosynthetically active radiation.


L


LD50 – Dose required to kill 50% of laboratory test animals.


Leaching – the downward movement of water and nutrients from the soil surface to the water table due to gravity.


Leafhoppers – Small (less than 1/2 inch long) wedge-shaped slender insects that disperse rapidly when disturbed.


Leggy or spindly – Excessive and weak stem growth due to exposure to adverse environmental conditions.


Legume – Plant that has a symbiotic relationship with rhizobium bacteria.


Light soil – A soil that contains a high proportion of sand.


Ligule – Structures that occur where the leaf blade attaches to the stalk.


M


Macroclimate – The overall climate of a particular region.


Maximum temperature – The warmest temperature that germination occurs for seed of a particular vegetable.


Microclimate – The specific environmental conditions of your garden site.


Micronutrients – Plant nutrients that are needed in very small quantities.


Milk phase – Stage of development when the juice of the kernels on sweet corn ears appears milky.


Minimum temperature – Coolest temperature that seed germination or growth occurs for a particular vegetable.


Mixed fertilizers – Fertilizers that ontain the major nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium).


Mulch – A layer of material covering the soil surface to exclude sunlight.


Muskmelon – A melon that has a musky aroma and salmon to orange colored flesh when mature. It has a netted rind with deep sutures.


Mycelium – The network or mass of hyphae formed by fungi.


N


Natural mulches – Mulches made from natural materials such as compost or bark.


Nitrate – The form of nitrogen that plants use. It is easily lost through leaching.


Noxious weed – Weeds that government agencies want to prevent from establishing in a particular area.


Nurse plants – Plants that provide factors or serve as breeding grounds for beneficial insects, increasing populations of beneficial insects.


O


Open-pollinated cultivars – Plants that are left to become pollinated on their own.


Optimum temperature – The temperature at which the greatest or most rapid seed germination occurs for a particular vegetable.


Oral exposure – Pesticide is ingested through a person’s mouth.


Organic matter – Decaying plant, microbe and animal remains.


Organic pesticides – A pesticide made from a natural product that has undergone only a little processing.


Over mulching – Applying too much mulch.


Oxygen starvation – Roots cannot get the oxygen they need.


P


Paper mulches – Mulches made from newspaper or paper fibers.


Peat moss – The partially decayed remains of sphagnum moss.


Perennials – Plants that live two or more years.


Perlite – Lightweight volcanic material often used in soil less media.


Permanent wilting point – The point where a plant can no longer remove the small amount of water remaining in the soil and the plant wilts.


Pest – Plants, fungi, bacteria, nematodes, insects and animals that occur in a place they are not wanted.


Pesticides – A chemical that kills undesirable plants, plant diseases, insects or other pests.


pH – Is – Log [H+] and a scale from 1 to 14.


Phosphates – The form of phosphorus used by plants.


Photodegradable mulch – Mulch that contains chemicals that cause the plastic to degrade when exposed to ultraviolet radiation.


Photosynthetically active radiation – Wavelengths of radiation (mostly reds and some blues and yellows) used by plants for photosynthesis (production of sugars).


Pickling cucumbers – Cucumbers that are one to six inches long with a warty skin that is used for pickling and sometimes for salads


Plant cages – Structures made from cloth or plastic that keeps out migrating insects while allowing sunlight, rain and wind to enter. They generally do not protect against cool temperatures.


Popcorn – A variety of corn that has small ears, kernels that are pointed at the base and apex and very hard starch in the kernels which explodes when heated.


Potash – A form of potassium contained in the soil and fertilizers and utilized by plants.


Preventative weed control – Practices whose aims are to prevent weeds from occurring in the garden.


Prevention – Preventing problems before they occur.


Pumpkin – The edible fruit of any Cucurbita species that is harvested mature and is not used as a baked vegetable.


Purity – The seed is true to type and does not contain undesirable contaminants.


R


Raised beds – Mound the soil up in the planting area above the surrounding soil level.


Re-entry time – The amount of time you must wait to enter a garden after it has been treated with a pesticide.


Rhizobium bacteria – Bacteria that grow in close association with the roots of legumes and can convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrate.


Rock phosphate – A finely ground natural rock powder that is used to supply the soil with phosphate.


Roguing – Removal of diseased plants.


Root resistant cultivars – Vegetable cultivars that are resistant to one or more disease, insect, nematode or virus.


Rots – A disease that attacks plant roots causing them to rot.


Row covers – Plastic sheets that can be used to cover rows of a crop and provide protection from cold temperatures and some insect pests.


Row planting – Growing vegetables in single or double rows with aisles between each row.


S


Sand – Soil particles ranging in size between 0.2 to 2 mm.


Sanitation – Removing sources of pests so as few pests as possible get into your garden.


Scouting – Regularly checking crops for pests and damage symptoms; looking in your garden to determine if pests are a problem.


Seaweed meal – Seaweed that has been dried and ground into a fine powder. It contains many different compounds that may affect plant growth.


Seed – A dormant undeveloped plant.


Seed coat – The outer “skin” on a seed that protects it from the environment.


Seedless watermelon – Self-sterile watermelon hybrids that develop normal looking fruits, but no fully developed seeds.


Semi-organic or organically based – An organic fertilizer that has had potassium sulfate added.


Side dress – The process of applying soil amendments or fertilizers next to an emerged vegetable crop.


Side-dressing – Applying fertilizer in a band near the crop row after the crop has emerged.


Silt – Soil particles between 0.002 and 0.05 mm in size.


Slicing cucumbers – Cucumbers that are 8to 14 inches long with dark skin and used for salads, sandwiches, and soups


Soil crust – A hard surface layer that can form on some soils after rains.


Soil-less media – A growth media not containing field soil.


Soil texture – The coarseness or fineness of soil particles.


Soluble salts – Chemical compounds, many plant nutrients, that disassociate into positively and negatively charged ions.


Starch-based biodegradable mulch – Mulch made from plastic that contains starch, which is degraded by bacteria.


Succession plantings – Growing crops so that they mature at different times.


Sugar enhancer sweet corn cultivars – Cultivars that contain the sugar enhancer (se) gene, which significantly raises the sugar content of their kernels above standard cultivars.


Sugary sweet corn cultivars – Cultivars that contain the “sugary gene,” have less initial kernel sugar than other sweet corn types, and that sugar is rapidly converted into starch after harvest.


Summer annuals – Weeds that germinate in the spring, grow during the spring and produce seed during the fall.


Summer squash – Squash whose fruit is harvested when immature before the rind hardens.


Supersweet cultivars – Cultivars that contain the shrunken-2 (sh2) gene which slows the conversion of sugar to starch, allowing these cultivars to hold their sweetness much longer than su or se types.


Sweet corn – Types of corn that produces and retains large amounts of sugars in its kernels, the skins of the kernels are tender and wrinkle when dried.


Symptoms – The outward appearance of a plant, which is attacked by a disease or insect.


Synthetic fertilizers – A fertilizer whose nutrients are concentrated and converted into a form that is readily available in the soil.


Synthetic mulches – Mulch from a man-made product such as plastic.


Synthetic pesticides – A pesticide synthesized from petroleum – derived chemicals.


T


Tassel – The structure at the tip of the corn plant, which is the male flower.


Topsoil – The uppermost and the darkest layer of the soil that contains most of the organic matter, living organisms and plant roots.


Toxicity – Inherent capacity of a material to produce death or injury.


Transplanting – Shifting of a plant from one soil or growth medium to another.


Trap crops – Plants that attract insect pests keeping them away from the vegetable crop.


True-to-type – The plants are actually the vegetable and variety the label indicates.


U


Unmixed fertilizers - Fertilizers that contain only one plant nutrient


V


Variety – A botanical subdivision within a species.


Vermiculite – Lightweight expanded mica often used in soil-less media.


Viability – The percentage of seed that will germinate.


Vine crops – Crops that produce vines that grow along the ground including watermelon, muskmelon and pumpkins.


Virus – Particles containing DNA or RNA that are much smaller than bacteria and require a host cell to multiply.


W


Warm season – Vegetables that germinate and grow best when temperatures are warm.


Waterlogged – The air spaces in the soil are filled with water.


Wheel hoe – An oscillating or stationary hoe blade mounted on a wheel with handles.


Winter annuals – Germinates during the fall, overwinters and produces seed during the spring.


Winter melons – Melons that have a smooth rind surface, do not separate from the vine when ripe and lack a distinctive flavor.


Winter squash – A squash whose fruit are harvested when uniform in color and rind is hard.


Z


Zucchini – A squash whose fruit is harvested immature, have a green colored skin and are long cylindrical-shaped with little or no taper.